Fort York: Toronto's 19th century harbour defence

Fort York, located on the west side of downtown Toronto, Canada, comprises Canada's largest collection of original British military buildings from the War of 1812 era.

Sited on the shoreline and designed to defend the entrance to Toronto Harbour and the town of York (re-named Toronto in 1834) to the east, the first, temporary iteration of the fort was constructed in 1793 at the direction of John Graves Simcoe, Lieutenant-Governor of the colony of Upper Canada (present-day Ontario).  This first fort, hastily built of green wood, soon deteriorated and was replaced by a new fort a short distance to the east in 1800-1813.  This second Fort York was destroyed during American attacks in April and July 1813.

On 27 April 1813, an American naval squadron of 14 ships with approximately 2,550 soldiers and sailors embarked landed troops two kilometres west of Fort York and advanced on the fort's outnumbered garrison of 800 British regulars, local militiamen, and First Nations warriors.  Faced with certain defeat, the British forces detonated a gunpowder magazine, the massive blast killing six of the defenders and 250 Americans, including Brigadier-General Zebulon Pike.  Most of the fort's structures were destroyed by the explosion, thereby ensuring that Fort York did not fall into American hands intact.  While the fort's surviving British forces retreated east to the town of Kingston, Ontario, the American invaders went on to occupy the town of York for six days, looting private property, abusing residents, and burning the Parliament Buildings and the Lieutenant-Governor's residence before withdrawing back to the US.  (In retaliation for these acts of arson, British forces burned the White House, the Capitol, and other government buildings when they attacked Washington, DC on 24 August 1814.)  The total casualties during the Battle of York amounted to 157 British/Canadian/First Nations and 320 Americans.

American forces returned to an undefended York on 31 July 1813 to seize supplies and burn military buildings missed in April, withdrawing home the next day.  With the return of British forces to York in August 1813, the re-construction of Fort York commenced on the site of the original 1793-1800 fort.  A year later, the artillery defences of Fort York were sufficiently strong to turn back a US Navy squadron attempting to enter Toronto Bay. The construction of this third iteration of Fort York was completed by 1815.

Fort York continued to be used by the British Army until 1870, when the Government of Canada assumed primary responsibility for the defence of the country.  The fort was formally handed over to the Government of Canada on 25 July 1870 and the last British troops departed the next year.  While the fort was completely obsolete as a military fortress by this time, it also lost its strategic waterfront location as Toronto's shoreline was extended south into the harbour through dredging and filling operations designed to provide more land for the growing city and the port and railways serving it.

In 1903, Fort York was sold by the federal government to the City of Toronto on condition that the fort be properly maintained and cared for.  Notwithstanding the sale to the city, Fort York continued to be used as an ancillary facility for the Toronto garrison until 1932, accommodating military families and storing ammunition and supplies; during the First World War, the fort served as an enlistment centre.  To provide work for unemployed men during the Great Depression and to mark the centennial of the incorporation of the City of Toronto, the dilapidated Fort York was restored as a historic site and museum between 1932 and 1934; it opened to the public on Victoria Day 1934.  Parts of Fort York were briefly used by the army during the Second World War, given its proximity to the nearby Exhibition Grounds, which were used to house and train large numbers of newly-enlisted soldiers.  Since Fort York's establishment more than two centuries ago, the surrounding area has been transformed, first by railway and industrial infrastructure and, more recently, by vast high-rise condominium developments.

The 200th anniversary of the War of 1812 in 2012 was marked by renewed attention on Fort York by the federal, provincial, and municipal governments and by charitable organisations.  A new visitor centre opened in 2014 and improvements were made to Garrison Common, the parkland adjacent to the fort on which some of the skirmishes of 27 April 1813 were fought.  Encompassing 17.4 hectares of land, Fort York and Garrison Common today comprise a National Historic Site helping to tell the story of Toronto's origins and the fort's role in the War of 1812, a struggle critical to the existence of an independent Canada.

Photos taken on 2 September 2024

A sign for Fort York stands in front of the Fort York Visitor Centre which sits in the shadow of the elevated Gardiner Expressway.

The main entrance to the Fort York Visitor Centre, a 23,000 square foot exhibit space designed by Vancouver-based Kearns Mancini Architects and Toronto-based Patkau Architects.  The $25 million Visitor Centre officially opened on 19 September 2014.    

Inside the entrance of the Fort York Visitor Centre sits a British 8-inch cannon dating from 1843.  In 1862, this gun was mounted on the south wall of Fort York to defend the entrance to Toronto Harbour.  It fired a 68-pound (31 kilogram) shell.

Inside the Fort York Visitor Centre, looking toward the main entrance.  An information desk is on the left and a series of exhibits are on the right.  The exhibits explain why Fort York was built and describe the American attack on the fort on 27 April 1813, as well as how the city of Toronto has expanded to surround the fort today.  Admission is free and visitors are provided a site map of Fort York to guide their exploration.       

A display on why Fort York was constructed and the choice of its location.  As the signage explains, Fort York was conceived by Upper Canada's first Lieutenant-Governor, John Graves Simcoe, and built at the entrance to the natural harbour created by the long, narrow spit of land that today forms the Toronto Islands.  Fort York's waterside location was designed to permit the fort's guns to protect the fledgling Upper Canada provincial capital of York from attacks by hostile American warships.  The display contains several items excavated on the Fort York site, including a British iron axe head and splitting wedge, both dating from c. 1795 and used in the construction of the fort's barracks and defences. 

A model of a flat-bottomed bateau, the primary means of transport on the Great Lakes in the 18th- and early-19th centuries.  Crewed by five men, a bateau could carry several tonnes of cargo and was powered by its sail or by oars.  The shallow draught and flat bottom of the bateau made it easy to beach the craft to unload in an era when there were few docks and harbour installations in Upper Canada (Ontario).  Such bateaux, entering and departing Toronto Harbour, would have been a common sight to the garrison of Fort York and the citizens of the town of York (Toronto from 1834 onwards).         

A model of a steam dredge like those that were used to scoop sand and rock from the bottom of Toronto Harbour between the 1850s and the 1920s as part of the effort to provide more land for the city of Toronto.  This massive land reclamation project moved the shoreline of Toronto Harbour over a kilometre to the south, with Fort York now well inland compared to its original lakeside location.  The reclaimed land was quickly developed with roads, buildings, and railway lines.  

A display on how Toronto developed around Fort York's valuable lakefront location.  The area designated for military use around the fort was gradually reduced to accommodate the construction of government buildings and, later, railway infrastructure, while dredging of Toronto Harbour and the creation of new land pushed the shoreline south.  By 1893, Fort York was hemmed in by railway lines to the north, east, and south.  The display case contains a soda bottle and a beer bottle dating from the late 19th century, which were excavated from the reclaimed land south of Fort York during recent construction projects; these show how domestic and industrial waste was used as fill for the land reclamation in Toronto Harbour.  

Below: The brochure given to visitors to Fort York.

The sign at the start of the gallery which chronologically recounts the American attack on Fort York and the town of York on 27 April 1813. 

Visitors proceed up a gently inclined ramp, with signage on the walls noting the time of key American movements (left wall) and the time of British and First Nations counterattacks (right wall).  Lighting and sound effects add to the sense of walking through a battlefield, including gunfire, explosions, and shouted orders piped in from speakers hidden in the ceiling.

At the end of the gallery is a film loop depicting historical reenactments of the American landing to the west of Fort York, the attack on the fort, and the British detonation of the fort's gunpowder magazine, which inflicted heavy casualties on the American force and allowed the British to retreat eastwards to the town of Kingston. 

Having learned about the American attack on Fort York, visitors exit the Visitor Centre on Garrison Common for the short walk to the fort itself.  A viewing platform is located on the roof of the Visitor Centre, providing views across Garrison Common. 

Looking across Garrison Common toward Fort York's west curtain wall and dry moat.  Garrison Common was the location of skirmishes between the American invaders and the fort's garrison and aboriginal allies on 27 April 1813.

A 19th century Coehorn mortar sits on Garrison Common.

An Ontario Heritage Foundation plaque along the pathway leading to the fort's entrance.  The plaque commemorates the Battle of York on 27 April 1813, including the American attack on Fort York, the detonation of the fort's gunpowder magazine by the British, and the subsequent six-day occupation, looting, and burning of the town of York by American troops. 

Wooden fraises (horizontal palisades) jut out from Fort York's west curtain wall, as seen from the dry moat in front of the wall.  Fraises were designed to slow an assault: being spaced 15 centimetres apart, enemy soldiers could neither penetrate through them, nor use them for cover.  The fraises were located low down in the moat, out of the direct line of fire from enemy guns, in order to preserve them as much as possible.  The west curtain wall and the dry moat are among the few remaining elements of the 1800-1813 iteration of Fort York, built about 100 metres to the east of the present fort's location.  It was this fort that was attacked and destroyed by American forces in April 1813.  The west curtain wall, running north-south, was built in 1811 and was originally a detached earthwork designed to protect Government House (the residence of the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada) against a land attack from the west and offer distant protection to the fort itself, as well the town of York two kilometres to the east.  

The entrance gate at the midpoint of the west curtain wall of Fort York today.  Originally, the fortified west curtain wall was continuous and had no gate.

A view into Fort York, looking east from the main entrance through the west curtain wall.

Visitors enter the fort through the gift shop housed in the former North Soldiers' Barracks.

Once inside the grounds of Fort York, a vista of grassy, open parade ground and scattered buildings dating to the early 19th century.  In fact, Fort York comprises Canada's largest collection of original British military structures dating from the era of the War of 1812.  The Stone Magazine is in the foreground on the right, while the Soldiers' Blue Barracks and one of the fort's two wooden blockhouses can be seen in the distance.

On the western side of Fort York are the North Soldiers' Barracks (right) and South Soldiers' Barracks (left), both built in 1815.  When built, each of these two barracks housed 100 people, including soldiers and their wives and children.  By the 1820s, the number of occupants had been reduced to 50 per building in order to improve living conditions.  In the 1860s, each room in the barracks was occupied by three soldiers and their families; this was further reduced after 1870, when each room was converted into an apartment for one soldier and his family.  Some of the rooms were also used for other purposes, such as housing the garrison school.  The barracks were used to accommodate soldiers until 1932.    

The entrance to one of the rooms in the North Soldiers' Barracks.  The drummers, privates, corporals, and sergeants who occupied these quarters were recruited from the lowest socio-economic class of British and Canadian society.  When deployed to Upper Canada, a British Army infantry battalion would post 200-300 of its soldiers at Fort York, with the remainder being deployed to other military posts in the province.  Supplementing these infantrymen at Fort York were a small number of  senior officers, artillerymen, and sometimes cavalrymen.        

This room in the North Soldiers' Barracks now houses a lecture space and displays on the origins of Fort York, the fort's changing role between 1793 and the present, and the restoration of the fort as a historic site.     

One of the information panels in the former barracks room addresses the period 1793-1796 and the war for the Ohio Country.  The map shows British and American settlements and military outposts in the Great Lakes frontier, as well as the locations of major battles between US forces and Britain's aboriginal allies who were fighting to prevent the westward expansion of American settlers into their ancestral lands in the Ohio country.  Although Britain and the United States were not at war in the 1790s, Britain and France were, and the British feared that the French would encourage the Americans to invade Canada.  As such, Britain fortified Toronto Bay to serve as a naval arsenal to control Lake Ontario, built Yonge Street as a military transport route north to Georgian Bay, and moved the capital of Upper Canada from the border town of Niagara to York.  Although a war was averted between Britain and the US, American settlers forced the surrender of aboriginal lands in the Ohio country by 1795.

A chronological depiction of the American attack on Fort York and the town of York, 27 April 1813.

A modified version of an 1816 map by Surveyor J.B. Duberger of the Royal Engineers, showing the layout of Fort York, including original buildings and those that were reconstructed as part of the 20th century historical restoration. 

A map of the city of Toronto in December 1837, when rebels led by radical reformer William Lyon Mackenzie unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow the colony's government and seize the city.  In addition to the fact that most of Fort York's garrison had been deployed to Lower Canada (Quebec) to defend against a more serious uprising threat there, the fort's location far from the scene of the skirmishes between rebels and loyalists meant that it played little part in the events of December 1837.  In addition to political reforms that calmed dissent, following the failed rebellion the authorities enrolled large numbers of militiamen for full-time service, sent reinforcements of British regulars to Canada, constructed defensive installations around the city, and strengthened Fort York, including through the addition of wooden palisades and stockades to stop an infantry assault.    

Inside another of the three rooms of the North Soldiers' Barracks.  This room has been restored to what it would have looked like in 1815.  Bunk beds line the west wall, each designed to accommodate two people on the top and bottom bunks.  Meals were served at the two tables in the centre of the room.  Fireplaces at each end of the room provided warmth during cold Canadian winters.  During the last years of Fort York's active military use, this room had been divided into several smaller rooms and a kitchen had been added to the west side of the quarters for one soldier and his family.

A closer look at the bunks which, collectively slept 32 people in each of the three rooms of the North Soldiers' Barracks in 1815.  An equal number were accommodated in the identical South Soldiers' Barracks.  Note the rucksacks, caps, and mess tins stored on the long shelf above the bunks, and the wool uniforms hung from hooks on the back wall.        

British Army red wool uniform coats hang on hooks over a rack of muskets near the door.

Given the rigours of military life, the fort's garrison was well fed, especially compared to the average citizen.  A soldier's typical daily ration consisted of one pound of flour or 1.5 pounds of bread; one pound of fresh beef or half a pound of pork (pork was especially available in York); one ounce of butter or cheese; a quarter pint of peas; one ounce of rice; and five pints of beer.  In addition, oatmeal and potatoes were often issued to the soldiers when available.    

A copy of a 1797 British Army ordinance outlawing the sale of alcohol to any enlisted soldiers stationed at the fort, except at the fort's canteen, which was staffed by a sutler (a civilian merchant selling provisions to soldiers in the field or in quarters).  Furthermore, the ordinance bans the consumption of alcohol by enlisted soldiers in the fort's barracks.  

A cast iron Blomefield 24-pounder smoothbore muzzle loading cannon on a wooden traversing mount sits at the northwest bastion, near the North Soldier's Barracks.  The 24-pounders weighed 5,376 pounds (2,438.5 kilograms) and this gun was manufactured by the Carron Company of Falkirk, Scotland in 1802.  During the War of 1812, 24-pounders were the largest artillery pieces in Upper Canada; after the war, the British Army sent more powerful 32-pounder guns to improve the defences of the colony.  The earthworks in front of the curtain wall were designed to absorb enemy cannonballs while the thick masonry of the wall itself could withstand significant artillery fire.  

A panoramic view of the grounds of Fort York, looking east.  On the left is the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment and on the right is the North Soldiers' Barracks.  In the distance can be seen the Stone Magazine and the No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse. 

The Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment, built in 1815.  Senior officers were housed in one section of the building, while the other section contained a dining room for all of the garrison's officers.  The single-storey building measures 33.5 metres (110 feet) long by 15.25 metres (50 feet) wide.

The sitting area in one of the officer's apartments in the barracks.  A wood-burning stove sits in the centre of the room, with a small desk on the left.  The interior of the Officer's Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment has been recreated to resemble its appearance in the 1830s. 

Adjacent to the sitting area is the officer's bedroom.  A bearskin hangs on the wall, while a chamber pot is under the bed.  While some officers resided in this barracks with their families, most married officers lived in town in more comfortable rented accommodations.

At the end of the hallways between the officer's apartments were kitchens which doubled as servants' quarters.  To the left is a door which provided servants direct access to the rear of the barracks.

The anteroom in the section of the building housing the mess dining room.  A wood-burning stove provided warmth for officers writing letters, playing cards, or relaxing in this room.  The pantry can be seen through the doorway. 

The mess dining room in which the garrison's officers ate their meals.  The interior of the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment has been recreated to look as it did in 1834-37, when the the 15th (York, East Riding) Regiment was posted to Toronto.  

A large dining table dominates the room, which is heated by a small wood-burning stove at the far end.  The dining room was also used for entertaining, with a square piano in the far right corner. 

A closer look at the pantry adjacent to the anteroom.  Table linens, kitchenware, wine and spirits bottles, and decanters sit atop the table in front of the window.  

In a small pantry behind the dining room, a staircase under a trap door leads down to the cellar.    

The basement of the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment houses the oldest surviving purpose-built kitchen in Toronto.  Basement kitchens were common in the early 19th century and people wealthy enough to have a dedicated kitchen could also afford to hire servants to take care of the loud, smelly, messy job of cooking.  Basement kitchens also helped heat the structures above. 

Excavated by archaeologists between 1987 and 1990, the original red brick fireplace and oven can be seen on the east wall.  A second fireplace was situated on the west wall of the kitchen but was bricked up in 1826.  The curving line of stones on the floor is part of a drainage system connecting to a nearby catch basin from which water drained away by gravity due to Fort York's location on a hill.  During the period between 1815 and 1826 when this basement kitchen was in use, there was an 'areaway' (passageway) running along the outside of the north and east walls to bring in light and fresh air.  Archaeologists found 12,475 artefacts when excavating the basement kitchen.  The ceiling joists still feature remnants of the 'pugging' (clay or mud and straw) which was stuffed into the rafters of the kitchen to block noise and smells from bothering the officers in the dining room above.  In the event of a fire in the kitchen, the ceiling would collapse and the pugging would smother the flames.   

Through the door on the west wall is the wine cellar.  As part of renovations to the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment to make it more comfortable for its occupants, an upstairs kitchen was constructed in 1826 and the basement kitchen was closed and replaced with a wine cellar.  The wine cellar as built was larger than it is today, with the original foundation visible in the ground, one metre east of the present wall.  The wine cellar was scaled back in the 1870s or 1880s.  Archaeologists excavating the wine cellar found the broken pieces of a serving platter buried beneath the floor.  It has been speculated that the shards were buried by a servant scared of being punished for breaking the platter.

This passageway, formerly the areaway that brought light and ventilation into the basement kitchen, now leads to one of two fireproof money vaults constructed to safeguard army and bank funds during the Rebellion Crisis of 1837-39.  Before the rebellion led by radical reformer William Lyon Mackenzie, the army kept its money in banks in Toronto; however, as tensions rose in the 1830s, fear of rebel raids on the banks led to Fort York's vaults being constructed.  The Bank of Upper Canada alone had approximately £130,000 of gold and silver and large quantities of negotiable paper which would have been a tempting target for the rebels.

The view from inside one of the two basement money vaults.  While the other vault was built new in 1838, this smaller vault was originally constructed in 1826 at the Commissariat Office on Front Street, east of Fort York; in 1838, it was disassembled and rebuilt here in response to the Rebellion Crisis.  The vaults were originally protected by iron doors, which have been removed by conservationists due to corrosion from the damp basement atmosphere.  A thick wall dividing the vaults from the wine cellar gave added protection and the army also kept the trap door at the top of the basement stairs locked.  

The rear of the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment.  Entry to the kitchens and servants' quarters was via the rear doors seen here.

The east end of the Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment.  By the late-19th century, the building was being used as quarters for married officers and as administrative offices for the militia.

Looking east toward the Officers' Blue Barracks (left) and the No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse. 

A cast iron Blomefield 32-pounder smoothbore muzzle loading cannon on an iron garrison carriage, sited at an embrasure in the north bastion.  This 6,272 pound (2,845 kilogram,) cannon was manufactured by Samuel Walker & Company of Rotherham, England.

The Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada plaque installed by the Government of Canada outlines the significance of Fort York.  The fort was designated a National Historic Site of Canada on 25 May 1923.    

Built in 1814, the Officers' Blue Barracks housed junior officers (ensigns, lieutenants, and some captains) in 16 small rooms accessed from four hallways.  The building got its name from the colour of the paint on its window frames and doors.  Despite the Blue Barracks having small kitchens, the junior officers typically had their meals in the dining room of the nearby Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment.  This building is a reconstruction of the original Blue Barracks, whose eastern half was torn down in 1838 to improve the field of fire from the nearby blockhouse.  The remaining western half of the barracks proved too badly decayed to be restored when Fort York became a historic site.  Instead, the building (except for its brick fireplaces and chimneys) was dismantled and rebuilt in 1934 using as much of the original material as possible.  The eastern half of the building was reconstructed in 2000 with an exterior reflecting its 1814 appearance and a modern interior. 

Inside the reconstructed western half of the Officers' Blue Barracks, with an original 1814 brick fireplace.  Displayed inside the fireplace is a sample of a dovetail jointed timber salvaged from a portion of the 19th century Queen's Wharf at what is now the corner of Bathurst Street and Lakeshore Boulevard.  The timber was unearthed during construction of a condominium in 2006.  

Scale models of Fort York's Guard House (left) and Cookhouse (right), both built in 1816 and not rebuilt as part of the fort's restoration as a historic site.  The Guard House originally stood at the fort's east entrance and measured 24 metres by 9 metres (79 feet by 30 feet), with a covered portico measuring 2.4 metres (8 feet) wide.  Over its life, the Guard House was used as an office, a guard room (short term accommodations for on-duty sentries), a storeroom for provisions, and as a jail for military offenders.  The Cookhouse originally stood at the south curtain wall, west of Circular Battery.  It measured 15.2 metres by 5.8 metres (50 feet by 19 feet).  Basic, rationed meals were prepared daily in the Cookhouse by the soldiers, who then took their food to their barracks to eat.  Given its location near the curtain wall, the Cookhouse was built to absorb or deflect metal shell splinters during an attack. 

The modern interior of the east half of the Blue Barracks, rebuilt in 2000, is now used to host events and educational programming.  The darker wood strips on the floor denote the location of the original hallways between the officer's rooms in the Blue Barracks.  Hung on the walls of this room are prints and photographs depicting some of the leisure activities enjoyed by 19th century officers and soldiers when off-duty.  For officers, these activities included concerts, balls, organised sports, and amateur theatre, as such pursuits were seen as appropriate to their status as gentlemen.  For soldiers, drinking was a principal recreational activity, both in canteens in the fort and at taverns in Toronto.  Funds raised through the sale of beer to soldiers at military canteens were used to purchase books and periodicals for garrison libraries, as well as games and sporting equipment for the men. 

A model of the schooner Nancy, built in Detroit, Michigan in 1789 for the fur trade.  She measured 24 metres (80 feet) in length, with a beam of 6.7 metres (22 feet), and a displacement of 67 tons burden.  In 1812, the vessel was commandeered by the Provincial Marine and in 1814 transferred to the Royal Navy as HMS Nancy.  HMS Nancy was armed with two 6-pounder guns and two 24-pounder carronades and served as a naval supply ship on the Upper Lakes.  In August 1814, HMS Nancy was blocked in central Ontario's Nottawasaga River by American forces and burned by her crew on 14 August to prevent her capture.  The remains of HMS Nancy were discovered in 1911 by Toronto marine historian, artist, and journalist  C.H.J. Snider (1879-1971).  Only the bottom part of the ship survived the fire and subsequent years of decay, being buried in an island (Nancy Island) that formed around the wreck over the course of nearly a century.  (The white line on the hull of the model shows the upper limit of the remains of the Nancy when discovered.)  Given how little of the ship survived, this model, built by Snider, is based on his research and the general appearance of small Great Lakes schooners of the late 1700s.  Wood and metal recovered from the wreck of HMS Nancy were incorporated into the model.  The remains of HMS Nancy were raised in 1927 and put on display the next year in a museum on Nancy Island. 

An 1887 photo of soldiers having a drink in the canteen of New Fort York in Toronto.  New Fort York, erected in 1841, was located to the west of Fort York, in what is today the Exhibition Grounds; the only surviving building from New Fort York is the stone-built officers' quarters.  Canteens helped to regulate alcohol consumption at military garrisons and also gave soldiers a place to purchase other items, such as smoking supplies and sweets.  Although soldiers could purchase beer in the canteen, they had to move to a room across the hall to consume it.  

A meeting space inside the Officers' Blue Barracks, with artefacts excavated on the grounds of Fort York displayed in the cabinets along the rear wall.  Items on display include various buttons, belt buckles, pins, thimbles, wax seal stamps, clay pipe fragments, and components from whale oil and kerosene lamps.

A display of stoneware and china dishes recovered during excavation of the wine cellar in the basement of Fort York's Officers' Brick Barracks and Mess Establishment.  The serving platter and plate were reassembled from shards and were part of an expensive set manufactured by the Spode pottery in Staffordshire, England sometime between 1822 and 1833; they feature an Imari design first used by Spode in 1812.  The other artefacts in this display date from the late 1700s to the late 1800s, and include shards of a black basalt teapot, various plates, and vegetable and condiment dishes.   

A display of bottle fragments found during the excavation of the officers' quarters.  Officers in the 19th century consumed large quantities of sherry, port, claret, beer, ale, porter, cider, and distilled liquors during dinner and social occasions.  In addition to large volume purchases by the officers' mess, individual officers often purchased their own alcohol from local merchants.  Alcohol was shipped in wooden casks or in bottles packed in cases.  Items displayed in this case include a glass seal from a wine bottle, corks, and four reconstructed bottles dating from the late 1700s to the early 1800s.    

This room houses displays on the fur trade in the Great Lakes region between 1700 and 1759.  The French undertook exploration and trade missions, travelling by canoe and forging alliances with the Ojibway people who already had established trading routes in the region.  From Toronto, French traders could travel north to the Upper Great Lakes, east to Montreal, or west to the Mississippi River via the connected network of rivers and lakes.  The French established Fort Rouillé (also known as Fort Toronto), a small trading post, in 1751 but burned it down in 1759 before retreating in the face of advancing British forces.  The large display case holds various original or reproduction items related to the fur trade, including animal pelts, axe heads, a musket, musket balls, musket flints, an arrow head, smoking pipes, and tally sticks used to value packages of pelts. 

Two former officer's rooms, now combined, today house an exhibit on shipbuilding, trade, and war on the Great Lakes.  During the War of 1812, both the British and the Americans recognised the strategic importance of the Great Lakes, control of which guaranteed access to troops and supplies and conferred the ability to maintain lines of communication between widely-dispersed settlements and bombard the enemy's lakeside forts.  As such, both sides began a race to build naval forces in the Great Lakes, expending considerable money and effort to build naval vessels on Lake Erie and Lake Ontario: the British built at least nine vessels and the Americans 15.  In addition, many merchant vessels were commandeered by both the British and Americans early in the war, being pressed into service as naval supply ships and troop transports supporting the armies ashore.  The American shipbuilding effort could rely on materials manufactured in nearby US cities; however, the British transported cannons, rope, anchors, sails, blocks, and other essential shipbuilding supplies across the Atlantic to Quebec or Montreal where they were loaded onto small boats for the voyage up the St Lawrence River to Lake Ontario.  In some cases, vessels were built in Britain and shipped to Canada to be assembled locally.  Although the British had a slight advantage in the tonnage of naval shipping in Lake Erie and Lake Ontario in 1812-13, by 1815 the United States had pulled ahead.  After the war, the Rush-Bagot Treaty of 1818 limited British and American naval forces in the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, thereby ending the naval arms race.  After the end of the War of 1812, trade and commerce on the Great Lakes expanded greatly, with many schooners transporting passengers and cargo to and from Toronto Harbour.  The rigging and hulls of these schooners were specially tailored to the shallow waters, restricted harbours, and weather conditions of the Great Lakes, which often experienced sudden, violent storms near the end of the sailing season.       

In 1814, the British built the 102-gun HMS St Lawrence at the Royal Navy dockyard in Kingston; she was the largest ship on the Great Lakes and the only Royal Navy ship of the line to be built and operated entirely in fresh water.  Although never attacked by American forces, HMS St Lawrence served as a deterrent to large-scale naval warfare in the Great Lakes.  During the American attack on York on 27 April 1813, the British burned the unfinished frigate Sir Isaac Brock, then under construction in the town, before retreating east.

A view of the east end of the Officers' Blue Barracks, constructed in 2000, 162 years after having been torn down.

A member of Fort York's staff dressed in 1812-era British Army uniform explains to visitors the sequence of steps for firing a Land Pattern Musket, better known as the Brown Bess.  The Brown Bess was the standard musket of the British Army during the War of 1812 and was one of the longest-serving firearms in history, being used between the 1722 and 1838.

A series of photos showing the reenactor loading and firing the muzzle-loading, smoothbore flintlock Brown Bess musket.  The Brown Bess weighed 4.8 kilograms (10.5 pounds) and measured 149 centimetres (58.5 inches) in length.  To fire the musket, the soldier rammed a paper cartridge and a round musket ball down the barrel with a ramrod, aimed, and pulled the trigger to activate the flintlock which ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge.  The Brown Bess had a muzzle velocity of 300-550 metres per second (1,000-1,800 feet per second), with an effective firing range of 91 metres (298.5 feet).  While the rate of fire varied by individual soldier, a skilled infantryman could manage 3-4 rounds per minute.  Over 4.3 million Brown Bess muskets were manufactured during the 100+ years it was in service.      

No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse, constructed in 1813, was designed as a citadel accommodating 120 soldiers, with storage facilities in the cellar.  Fort York's pair of two-storey blockhouses were the first structures built after the American attack in April 1813, with the fort's earthwork curtain walls being completed in 1814.  A planned third blockhouse on the western side of Fort York apparently burned down during construction and was never rebuilt.  The blockhouses were constructed from thick, squared timbers clad in 'weather boards' and could withstand bullets, exploding shells, and small-calibre artillery rounds.  If the fort's walls were breached during an attack, the fort's garrison would have retreated into the blockhouses and returned fire through loopholes and windows.  A protective ditch, musketproof parapet, and bulletproof window blinds were added to No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse in 1837 during the Rebellion Crisis.  In addition to serving as barracks, the blockhouses were used for storage of military goods and, in the 1820s, as emergency housing for immigrants.  In the 1830s, the blockhouses were used as hospitals during a cholera epidemic and from 1867 they were serving as drill sheds for the militia.

Inside No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse are two floors of displays on the history and evolution of British military technology and practices between the years 1793 and 1870, when the British Army garrisoned Toronto.  The displays are grouped by military trade, covering command, infantry, artillery, engineering, cavalry, medicine, and music.  

This 18-pounder cast iron culverin drake was manufactured in the 1650s, shipped to North America sometime between the 1690s and the late 1750s, and brought to York in 1793 to defend Toronto Harbour at the direction of Upper Canada Lieutenant-Governor John Graves Simcoe.  Originally installed at Gibraltar Point on the west end of what is today the Toronto Islands, the gun was moved to Fort York in 1813 due to a desperate need for artillery.  Obsolete even before being sent to York, given shortages of equipment at home, the British often had to resort to sending dated weapons to Canada.  The culverin drake was capable of firing an 8.6 kilogram (18 pound) ball to a range of 1,650 metres (1,800 yards).  As Fort York's culverin drake was manufactured during the period of Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth, when England was briefly a republic (1649-60), it originally bore the cypher of the Commonwealth.  After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, this was replaced with the Royal cypher 'CR' (for 'Carolus Rex', Latin for 'King Charles II').  After being taken out of service around the 1820s, the 'Simcoe guns' were partially buried in an upright position and used as bumpers to protect the North and South Soldiers' Barracks from wagons and other vehicles until the 1930s.

A display of the various types of artillery in use in the period 1793-1870, including guns, carronades, mortars, and howitzers.  The diagram at the bottom centre depicts the parts of an 1812-era 6-pounder gun and the process by which it was fired.  Different types of artillery had different firing trajectories which gave artillerymen flexibility when addressing various kinds of targets. 

A display of the various types of projectiles used in smoothbore guns.  The type of projectile used depended on the objective, such as killing or wounding enemy troops; destroying ships, fortifications, or buildings; and tearing apart rigging on enemy vessels.  Examples on display include iron solid shot (the most common projectile); exploding shot; case shot; and shrapnel shells.  Fixed ammunition consisting of a single package containing a projectile, wooden sabot, and gunpowder charge in a paper or flannel bag made loading the guns faster and therefore increased the rate of fire.  The display case includes shell fragments possibly dating from the 27 April 1813 American attack on Fort York, excavated during archaeological digs at the fort. 

Mid-19th century spherical shells.  Prior to firing, the brass top was removed and a fuse inserted in its place.  The shell was filled with gunpowder via the small screw hole on the side of the shell.    

The large gun is a cast iron 9-pounder smoothbore muzzleloading cannon weighing 1,198 kilograms (2,642 pounds) with a range of 1,450 metres (1,600 yards).  Manufactured sometime between 1737 and 1756, this gun was used to defend Toronto Harbour between the 1790s and the 1820s.  The small gun in front of the 9-pounder is a cast iron 1-pounder smoothbore muzzleloading cannon dating from the 18th century.

A cast iron Addison's shot furnace dating from circa 1846.  Such furnaces were used to heat cannonballs to red hot temperatures (so-called 'hot shot').  Such heated cannonballs smashed a hole in its target and then set it alight; this was particularly useful when attacking wooden ships from waterfront defensive fortifications, such as Fort York.  Addison's shot furnaces burned a mix of shavings, wood, coal, and coke.  In the absence of a furnace, cannonballs could also be heated in fire pits dug in the ground.  On the wall behind the furnace are examples of the tools used to handle hot shot in the 1840s and 1850s, including tongs and double-handled carriers. 

The ground floor of No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse provides space for lectures and demonstrations, with exhibits of artillery pieces, implements, and uniforms displayed along the sides of the large room.     

A display of uniforms of the Royal Regiment of Artillery.  As with other military units, the Royal Artillery changed its uniforms regularly, both to keep up with changing fashion trends and to reflect evolving thought on the functionality of uniforms.  On the left is a reproduction uniform of a gunner during the War of 1812; on the right is a reproduction of a Royal Artillery barracks dress tunic of 1837, a comfortable uniform for everyday use.

An image of a British 68-pounder gun on a traversing platform inside a protected casemate harbour defence fortification, by G.B. Campion, C. 1845, from the National Army Museum, London.  

An image of British field artillery in action, by Denis Dighton, 1813, from The Royal Collection.  

A reproduction of a 19th century 12-pounder cast iron carronade.  Such short-barrelled guns fired a 5.4 kilogram (12 pound) cannonball to a range of 800 metres (870 yards).  Although they used less gunpowder than standard long-barrelled guns, the slower muzzle velocity made the shots more destructive, as they punctured their targets rather than slicing through them at high speed.  This carronade is mounted on a special carriage designed both to minimise the space it occupied on a ship and to reduce its recoil when fired. 

A bronze 9-pounder smoothbore muzzleloading cannon manufactured by the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich, England in 1859, mounted on a wood field carriage.

A scale model of part of the gun deck of a 19th century naval vessel, depicting two cannons at gunports, along with associated implements required for the loading and firing process. 

A display case containing various tools used by the 19th century British Army, including an adze head for smoothing logs used in the construction of buildings and fortifications; an axe head; iron spikes and nails; a carpenter's square for measuring, squaring, and as an arithmetical tool for timber framing; a bill hook used like a machete; an entrenching tool; and a serated pioneer's sword.  On the right side of the case is a reproduction of a 1790s private's uniform of the Queen's Rangers, along with authentic Queen's Rangers uniform buttons dating from 1793-1802 excavated at Fort York.  The Queen's Rangers, a regiment first raised in North America during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), was reactivated during the American Revolution as a loyalist unit.  Upon his appointment to the position of Lieutenant-Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Upper Canada in 1791, John Graves Simcoe, a former commanding officer of the Queen's Rangers, re-raised the regiment in Britain.  The regiment was deployed to Upper Canada in 1792 and served as a military unit and labour battalion until being disbanded in 1802.  During its service in the colony, the Queen's Rangers constructed roads and other infrastructure key to the defense and development of Upper Canada, including Yonge Street.

A display of small arms used by the Royal Artillery gunners for personal protection and guard duty.  Items include artillery officers' swords and an 1858 Enfield pattern artillery carbine with an 1853 Enfield pattern bayonet.  Also displayed are several implements of the gunner's trade, including powder horns and a set of brass gunner's calipers used to measure the size of artillery shot. 

A display of various shells for rifled artillery pieces.  Rifled guns had spiral grooves cut into the insides of their barrels to impart a spin to projectiles when being fired.  This spin stabilised the projectile and enhanced the range and accuracy of shot.  The pace of technological innovation between 1805 and 1870 allowed the army to increase the variety, size, and effectiveness of its weapons, rendering traditional artillery obsolete.  At Fort York, a battery of 8-inch shell guns was installed in 1862 to guard the entrance to Toronto Harbour in light of rising tensions between Britain and the United states during the American Civil War.  Later, in the 1870s, the Toronto Field Battery at Fort York was equipped with cast steel 9-pounder muzzleloading guns.     

A reproduction of the undress uniform tunic and cap of a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers in the 1860s.  It was at this time that the Royal Engineers upgraded the defences of Fort York for the last time in response to growing tensions between Britain and the United States.  While officers in the Royal Engineers were professionally-trained, many of the corps's enlisted men were skilled labourers prior to enlisting in the army, such as tailors, bricklayers and blacksmiths.  As such, these men represented a pool of skilled labour for tasks beyond the ability of soldiers, who were expected to perform unskilled labour in addition to their soldierly duties.  As the 19th century progressed, the Royal Engineers assumed duties beyond their traditional roles, including operating telegraphs, deploying electrically-controlled mines in harbours, and operating a pontoon bridge service.           

The upper floor of No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse includes displays on the infantry, cavalry, military medicine, and military music, as well as information on command, leadership, recruitment, training, discipline, and supply and infrastructure.  It also includes information on the defence of Canada at the outbreak of the War of 1812 and at the outbreak of the US Civil War, and information on the contribution of black soldiers to the defence of Upper Canada during the War of 1812. 

A graphic showing the distinctive uniform patterns of various infantry regiments of the British Army and local militia that served during the War of 1812.  Distinct uniforms and unique insignia helped build morale among the regiments' soldiers, as well as assisting soldiers in easily identifying their fighting units on the battlefield.  For largely uneducated soldiers, the concept of fighting for the honour of their regiment was more easily understood than more abstract geopolitical objectives. 

A belt plate from the 85th Regiment of Foot, also known as the The King's Regiment of Light Infantry (Bucks Volunteers).  Such belt plates kept soldiers' cross-belts in place.  The 85th Regiment's belt plate is inscribed with the Latin phrase 'Aucto Splendore Resurgo' ('I rise again with increased splendour') in reference to the three times the regiment was raised.  Between 1838 and 1843, the regiment was deployed to Upper and Lower Canada, including a stint in York in 1838-39, in response to the Rebellion Crisis.

A display on the contribution of black soldiers to the defence of Canada.  One of the displays tells the story of Richard Pierpoint, originally from Senegal, who was a slave to a British officer serving in North America and who volunteered to serve in the British forces during the American Revolution.  For his service, Pierpoint was granted his freedom and land in Upper Canada.  He later served in the 55-strong Coloured Company attached to the Lincoln militia in the War of 1812, which saw action on the Niagara frontier.  Black soldiers were often segregated within British regiments and often served as drummers, fifers, and bandsmen, or as pioneers (combat engineers).

A display of infantry long guns from the period 1793-1870.  While the infantry of 1793 used flintlock muskets and rifles, rapid advances in weapons technology led to the development of deadlier firearms.  In the 1830s, percussion ignition was introduced to reduce misfires and in the 1850s rifled muskets were adopted to improve accuracy, range, and penetration.  In the 1860s, breech-loading rifles were introduced widely, with even better accuracy and range.  The display includes an India Musket, the most common type of musket used by the British during the War of 1812, as well as an 1853 Pattern Enfield Long Rifle, an 1862 breech-loading Snider-Enfield Long Rifle, and an 1866 Snider-Enfield Short Rifle.     

This section of the upper floor of the blockhouse is devoted to the infantry, the backbone of the British Army.  The majority of soldiers posted to Fort York between 1793 and 1870 were infantrymen who, in addition to their primary role of deterring American invaders were also employed in training local militia troops, maintaining order during times of crisis, and representing the majesty of the state to the local population.  Dressed in bright red or dark green uniforms, these soldiers' principal weapons were muskets or rifles fitted with bayonets.  The panels in the foreground depict the order of battle of a typical British Army infantry battalion during the War of 1812.  As the main fighting and administrative units in the infantry, battalions usually had 500-800 officers and men.  Until 1860, typical battalions combined line infantry, light infantry, and grenadiers, though some battalions consisted exclusively of specialists, such as light infantrymen.  With the widespread introduction of rifled muskets in the 1850s, the British Army eliminated the distinctions between line, light, and grenadier soldiers within battalions and every infantryman was trained to fulfil all of these roles.  As armies became larger and more complex, the number of specialised positions also increased. 

A reproduction of the uniform of a private in the 47th Regiment of Foot, 1866.  The 47th Regiment served in North America several times, garrisoning Toronto in 1865-66.  In 1866, the regiment and local militia units were sent to the Niagara Peninsula to repel an invasion by Irish nationalist Fenians.  

A reproduction of the uniform of a corporal in the Rifle Brigade, 1848.  Light infantry and rifle regiments wore dark green uniforms rather than the standard red uniform of the line infantry as their role was to take advantage of rough terrain and forest cover to harass the enemy rather than to stand and fight in dense formations like the red-coated line infantry.  The Rifle Brigade fought in the Atlantic campaign of the War of 1812 and undertook garrison duty in Canada several times.  In the 1860s, the unit deployed in response to the cross-border Fenian raids from the United States.  The Rifle Brigade was posted to Toronto in 1847-50 and sent a detachment of its troops to Lake Superior to assert government authority during a dispute between miners and natives.  

A reproduction of the uniform of a private in the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry, 1815.  The British Army raised the Canadian Fencibles for service in Canada and the unit fought in the War of 1812, being based at Fort York at the end of hostilities.  Fencible regiments were generally temporary units that were raised locally and commanded by regular British Army officers.  They were usually confined to garrison and patrol duties, thereby freeing up regular army regiments for offensive operations.         

A reproduction of the uniform of a private in the 8th Regiment of Foot, 1813.  The 8th Regiment served in North America several times and fought at the Battle of York, 27 April 1813.  Infantrymen of this period carried a firearm, ammunition, a bayonet, food, water, tools, spare clothes, and other items needed to function in the field, a load typically weighing 25 kilograms (60 pounds).   

A display on the role and responsibilities of sergeants in the British Army.  Sergeants trained the enlisted soldiers and oversaw most routine aspects of soldiers' daily lives.  In battle, the sergeants assisted officers in directing the men and maintaining discipline.  Along with the corporals below them, sergeants were non-commissioned officers who rose through the ranks from private based on their experience, knowledge, and intelligence. 

A reproduction uniform of a sergeant in the 24th Regiment of Foot, 1837.  This regiment was deployed to Canada in 1776-81, 1790-1800, and 1829-40 and was posted to Toronto in 1837 before being sent to Lower Canada to fight rebel insurgents.  Returning to Toronto in 1838, the 24th Regiment guarded the city against rebels until 1840, when it returned to Britain.

A display on officers and their role in commanding troops.  As the army's managers, officers were responsible for deploying and directing their men effectively, leading them into battle, and inspiring them to fight with vigour and skill.  Outside of a combat setting, officers performed important administrative tasks, overseeing the training, equipping, and welfare of their men, while also liaising with the army bureaucracy, civilian authorities (both in Britain and in the colonies), local militia units, and First Nations allies.  The display case contains a number of ornate officers' swords dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries, as well as examples of officer's pistols and revolvers.  Such personal sidearms, commissioned from gunsmiths by the officers or their proud families, were marks of wealth and prestige.  Officers came from the upper strata of society and needed to demonstrate their socio-economic standing and position as gentlemen.  On the right side of the display is a reproduction of the uniform of a captain in the 71st Highland Light Infantry, which was garrisoned at Fort York in 1829-31. 

A reproduction of a winter shako (cap) worn by a soldier of the 6th Regiment of Foot, circa 1803.  Such non-regulation caps were created to cope with the cold of Canadian winters.  This reproduction shako is based on one depicted in an early 19th century watercolour in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle.  Soldiers on campaign often modified their uniforms to meet their immediate needs for comfort or substituted non-regulation items to replace worn-out gear when government supplies were unavailable.      

A display on military medicine, containing examples of surgical tools and other implements of the medical trade, as well as a portrait of Dr. John Shortt, who served as a surgeon in the 24th Regiment at Fort York in 1835 and later as deputy inspector general of hospitals for Canada in 1843.  The British Army's physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries (pharmacists) were responsible for examining the fitness of recruits, caring for the sick and wounded, monitoring punishment administered to soldiers for disciplinary lapses, performing autopsies, and inspecting barracks, transport ships, camps, clothing, and food to prevent illness and encourage good hygiene.  Army medical personnel were formally trained or educated through apprenticeships, while orderlies, nurses, and clerks helped to care for patients and run military hospitals.  Two or three medical personnel were assigned to each army battalion, but the volume of casualties after a battle often overwhelmed them and surgeons were often forced to amputate limbs and provide fast treatment when more could have been done for patients if given more time.  Surgical knowledge in the 19th century was limited, and a lack of awareness of how infection spread led to many otherwise preventable deaths.  Until the establishment of an army ambulance service in the 1850s, battalion drummers and musicians were primarily responsible for transporting wounded men from the battlefield to the medical posts.  During the War of 1812, York was an important hospital centre, receiving casualties from the fighting in the Niagara Peninsula and elsewhere; so many wounded men arrived in the town that temporary hospitals were established in private homes and public buildings.  Military doctors treated soldiers' families, civilian employees of the army, and sometimes even the general public.  For example, in 1820, the assistant surgeon of the 68th Regiment at Fort York dispensed medicine to poor immigrants in York who could not see a doctor elsewhere.  The army also relied on civilian doctors when necessary and soldiers' families often cared for sick and wounded men and performed washing and cleaning duties to ensure sanitary conditions in barracks. 

A display of cavalry weapons and uniforms.  Cavalrymen used swords and carbines (short-barrelled rifles) ideally suited for mounted action against enemy infantry, artillery, and cavalry.  Cavalrymen were deployed on the battlefield in both large and small formations, as required, and were used for skirmishing, patrolling, and scouting.  Firearms were normally used by cavalrymen in secondary roles, such as when dismounted, though they could be used on horseback.  As weapons technology advanced in the mid-19th century, some officers argued that firearms should become the primary weapons of the cavalry.  Cavalry regiments were prestigious units and therefore dressed in more elaborate uniforms than other branches of the military.  Blue was the most common colour of uniform for cavalry regiments.  On the left side of the display case is a reproduction of the uniform of a Trooper in the 19th Light Dragoons in 1813.  The 19th Light Dragoons was the only regular army cavalry regiment to serve in Canada during the War of 1812.  During the second American attack on York in July 1813, a small detachment of the 19th Light Dragoons was the only military unit in the town.  Lacking sufficient forces to defend York, the cavalrymen took the military supplies and hid them at a location up the nearby Don River.  Informed of the location of the supplies by a citizen of York, the Americans sent three armed boats up the river; however, the troopers of the 19th Light Dragoons were able to successfully evacuate the supplies to another location and the Americans left York after two days of occupation.

This display on military music contains a reproduction of a uniform of a Drummer in the Canadian Regiment of Fencible Infantry, 1815; a military drum; and a keyed bugle of the kind used in the War of 1812.  In the early 19th century, red-coated regiments with green, yellow, or buff collars, cuffs, and epaulettes typically reversed the colours on drummers' uniforms.  As such, the Canadian Fencibles' red coats with yellow facings were reversed so that the regiment's drummers wore yellow coats with red facings.  

A reproduction of an early 19th century serpent, a wind instrument comprising a wooden tube covered in leather.  Replacing the bassoon as the bass instrument in military bands in the 1780s, the serpent was itself replaced around 1840 by the keyed serpent (ophicleide) and then by valved brass instruments like the tuba and euphonium.

A reproduction of the uniform of a drummer in the 8th Regiment of Foot, circa 1813.  The 8th Regiment's status as a Royal regiment is denoted by the dark blue facings on the cuffs, collar, and epaulettes.  Unlike other red-coated infantry regiments in the early 19th century, Royal regiments did not change the colour of their drummers' uniforms; however, drummers could be distinguished from other soldiers by the different pattern of lace used on the uniform.   Two companies of the 8th Regiment fought in the Battle of York on 27 April 1813.

A display on the role of music in the military.  Music was used to communicate orders and information, both on the battlefield and in garrison; boost the morale of soldiers; cultivate traditions and values; encourage men to enlist; and maintain good relations with civilian society.  At Fort York, most regiments had two groups of musicians: a 'corps of drums' and a 'band of music'.  These two groups were distinguished by different uniforms, instruments, and training.  Additionally, Highland regiments usually added bagpipers to their musical establishment.  An interactive screen on the right allows visitors to play various recordings of period British military music.

The east side of No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse, with stairs leading to the upper floor.  The upper floor entrance was originally the sole access point to the blockhouse, which improved its defensibility; however, for convenience, the ground floor door was installed in the 1820s as the threat of conflict receded.  The British Army constructed 13 blockhouses in Toronto between 1793 and 1838, of which only Fort York's two survive.  The town blockhouse, built in 1798, was intended to protect the town's civilian population from attack during a period of rising tensions with the Mississaugas, a local aboriginal tribe.  Unlike Fort York's blockhouses, the town blockhouse had an upper floor oriented on a diagonal from the ground floor; this design improved the field of fire and was common in blockhouses built outside fortifications.  South of Fort York, on what are now the Toronto Islands, a blockhouse was built at Gibraltar Point, near the mouth of Toronto Harbour, in 1813.  The Gibraltar Point blockhouse featured an open second storey artillery platform with a traversing mounting to maximise the single gun's field of fire, as well as the ability to heat cannonballs to create 'hot shot' used to set fire to wooden enemy vessels.

The south east corner of No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse, with the Officers' Blue Barracks seen to the right.  Such blockhouses, now rare, were once common in North America, with hundreds constructed between the early 1600s and the mid-1800s.

Looking east from the top of the stairway leading to the second floor of the No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse.  On the left is the Brick Magazine and on the right is the No.1 (East) Blockhouse.  The east curtain wall is visible behind the buildings. 

The Brick Magazine was built in 1814 as a single-storey gunpowder magazine.  However, almost as soon as the building was completed, the design and weight of its bombproof roof began to cause structural failure.  An attempt to buttress the walls and add tie beams did not succeed and the British Army decided to remove the roof and add a second storey.  While a new Stone Magazine on the western side of the fort was built in 1815, the Brick Magazine was used to store weapons and other military equipment.  In 1838, during the Rebellion Crisis, the upper floor of the Brick Magazine was stocked with 5,000 muskets for the militia, while the lower floor was used as an armoury workshop.  Later, in 1909, the army stored three million rounds of .303 rifle ammunition in the Brick Magazine.  The building was used as a magazine until the 1930s.

Alterations to the Brick Magazine in 1838 and 1848 created the present interior staircase, added windows, and made other improvements to the building.  Today, the ground floor of the Brick Magazine houses a collection of 21 photographs of Fort York's conversion from an active military establishment to a public museum in the early 1930s,  taken by William Arthur Scott Goss, Toronto's first official photographer.  The City of Toronto Archives holds a collection of over 30,000 photographs taken by Goss between his appointment as official city photographer in 1911 and his death in 1940.

The upper floor of the Brick Magazine is an exhibit and lecture space.  The exhibits include a list of American, British, Canadian, and First Nations participants killed during the Battle of York on 27 April 1813, as well as excerpts from letters and diaries describing the fighting from their various perspectives.

A mannequin dressed as an Anishinaabe warrior in the Battle of York is the centrepiece of a memorial honouring the alliance between the First Nations and the British Crown in the War of 1812 and commemorating those First Nations warriors killed in defence of York on 27 April 1813. 

A mannequin dressed as a Private of the Upper Canada Militia in 1813.  In the early phase of the War of 1812, Upper Canada's militia did not resemble British Army regulars.  Shortages of weapons, cloth, and load-carrying equipment resulted in militiamen using a mix of regulation and non-regulation equipment and uniform items.  As seen here, militiamen wore green coats with black straps rather than the red coats and white straps of British Army regular troops.  The supply problems were largely solved by 1814, however, and the militiamen were clothed and equipped in a manner very similar to the British regulars.

One of the displays listing the names of those killed during the 1813 Battle of York, as well as first person accounts of the fighting, as told in letters and diaries.  Of the 181 soldiers, sailors, militiamen, First Nations warriors, dockyard workers, and volunteers killed during the American attack, 73 were British Army troops, 97 were Americans, two were First Nations warriors, and nine were Canadian civilians playing a military role.

The Royal Standard of the United Kingdom during the period between 1801 and 1816.

The brickwork on the north wall of the Brick Magazine bulges outward slightly, a consequence of the pressure placed on the walls by the building's original heavy bombproof roof.  To prevent a collapse, in 1848 the circular metal tie plates seen on the wall were connected to bars inside the building to help preserve its structural integrity.  The brickwork is scored, which helped Victorian-era stucco to adhere to the exterior walls.  Two narrow slits on either side of the ground floor windows on the east and west walls were part of the 1814 design for the magazine, designed to improve ventilation to keep the gunpowder dry.  Additionally, hooks in the walls near the peaks of the roof were intended to be used to haul boxes of ammunition, via pulley, in through the upper floor windows.            

No. 1 (East) Blockhouse was, like No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse, built in 1813 and was one of the first structures built at Fort York after the American attack earlier that year.  Unlike the No. 2 Blockhouse, however, this one is not open to the public.  It measures 12.5 metres by 12.5 metres (41 feet by 41 feet) and is 6.5 metres (21.3 feet) tall, not including the peaked roof.  Like the other blockhouse, this one was constructed of thick, squared timbers to protect its occupants against bullets, exploding shells, and small calibre artillery rounds, while the exterior cladding of weatherboards protected the timbers from rain and snow.  Loopholes permitted the defenders to fire at attackers, as well as letting in light and fresh air.  The second floor overhangs the first, designed to  allow the defenders to fire down upon attackers at the blockhouse's sides.

The north side of No. 1 (East) Blockhouse.  The depression in the ground at the base of the blockhouse is the approximate level of the ground in 1813.  The lower ground level at that time made the blockhouse more defensible.  The remnants of an entrance to the building's cellar and a vent to admit fresh air into the magazine in the blockhouse's basement are visible.  In addition to munitions, water and other supplies were stored in the blockhouse for use by besieged defenders.  As built, the blockhouses were only accessible via stairs leading to the second floor in order to improve their defensibility; the ground floor door in each blockhouse was added in the 1820s. 

Looking west from the top of the curtain wall at the east bastion of Fort York.  This view clearly shows how the southern wall bisects the No. 1 (East) Blockhouse.

Outside Fort York's east curtain wall, looking toward the fort's Main (East) Gate.  Those journeying to the fort from the town of York in the early 19th century had to cross a wooden bridge over Garrison Creek, which lies just to the east of Fort York.

Looking through the Main (East) Gate, into the grounds of Fort York.  The gate faced the town of York, two kilometres away, and was the gate through which military personnel, civilian visitors, and contractors came and went.  Anyone entering or exiting the fort was checked in or out by army sentries posted at the Guard House, which once stood just inside the walls. 

Circular Battery, also known as Government Battery, located on the south side of Fort York.  This battery, built in 1811, is one of the few elements of the fort's defensive works built prior to the American attack of 27 April 1813.  It was constructed to help defend Government House, the official residence and office of the Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada, which was located nearby and which was burned by American forces during the attack.  Surviving the American occupation, Circular Battery was incorporated into the defences of Fort York when the fort was rebuilt in 1813-15.  While Circular Battery has been restored to its its 1816 appearance, when it was equipped with two guns, during the 1837-38 rebellion crisis it was modified to accommodate five guns.  The battery defended the fort's south wall and the entrance to Toronto Harbour.    

One of the two original, Georgian-era artillery pieces currently sited at Circular Battery.  This is a cast iron Blomefield smoothbore muzzle loading cannon which fired a 32-pound (14.5 kilogram) shot to a distance of 2,600 metres (8,530 feet).  This cannon faces east and sits on a replica iron garrison carriage.  In peacetime, the army often mounted guns on such iron carriages due to their resistance to inclement weather; however, when required for action, the guns would have been mounted on wooden carriages better able to withstand the shock of firing.    

The second artillery piece at Circular Battery, facing west, is a 24-pounder cast iron Blomefield smoothbore muzzle loading cannon mounted on a replica iron garrison carriage.  This gun, manufactured by the Carron Company of Falkirk, Scotland in 1797, fired a a 24-pound (10.9 kilogram) shot to a range of 1,700 metres (5,577 feet).  The elevated Gardiner Expressway and high-rise condo towers can be seen in the distance today, although originally Circular Battery overlooked the steep bluffs of Lake Ontario at the entrance to Toronto Harbour.

A panoramic photo of Fort York, taken from the southwest section of the grounds.  The Officers' Blue Barracks, No. 2 (Centre) Blockhouse, the Brick Magazine, No. 1 (East) Blockhouse, and Circular Battery can be seen from left to right.

Two unmounted cast iron 8-inch smoothbore shell guns displayed on the grass in front of the south curtain wall.  These guns were manufactured by Samuel Walker & Company of Rotherham, England in 1843 and each weighs over 3,175 kilograms (7,000 pounds).

A cast iron Blomefield 18-pounder smoothbore muzzle loading cannon on a wooden traversing mount at the southwest bastion, behind the South Soldiers' Barracks.  This gun, weighing 2,099 kilograms (4,627 pounds) was manufactured by Samuel Walker & Company of Rotherham, England. 

Looking east from Fort York's southwest bastion.  The Snowbirds, the Royal Canadian Air Force's aerobatics team, flies its formation of CT-114 Tutors over Toronto during the Canadian International Air Show on 2 September 2024. 

Piles of sharpened wooden fraises stacked behind the Soldiers' South Barracks.

The well and well house.  The well was excavated by hand in 1802 soon after the construction of Government House, and is over seven metres (23 feet) deep, with an outside diameter of three metres (9.8 feet).  It is lined with lakeshore stone.  The well house is a 2007 reconstruction of a typical 19th century British Army well house.  When Fort York was transferred from the British Army to the Government of Canada in 1870, it featured three wells, one underground water tank, three latrines, three privies (outhouses), two urinals, and two ablution (washing) rooms.  

A simple hand-cranked winch and bucket for drawing well water.  In addition to using well water, the army hired contractors to draw water from Lake Ontario well away from sources of shoreline pollution.  Rainwater was also collected in underground cisterns using downspouts on the fort's buildings.  Municipal piped water was supplied to Fort York beginning in the 1890s. 

The Stone Magazine, built in 1815 to store gunpowder and cartridges for artillery, muskets, rifles, and other weapons.  The magazine was built by both military artificers (skilled labourers) and civilian workers from the local community and measures 13.5 metres by 10 metres (44.3 feet by 32.8 feet).  The exterior of the building is clad in lake-bed or lake-bank stone and the roof is fire-resistant metal.  By the 1860s, when there was a threat of an American invasion of Canada, the Stone Magazine had been surrounded by a wooden stockade and a porch overhang had been added to protect against exploding shell fragments; these have since been removed to restore the magazine to its 1815 appearance.  The Stone Magazine's peaked roof, eavestroughs, downspouts, and drains were designed to effectively move water away from the building in order to keep the gunpowder dry.   

The entrance to the Stone Magazine, on the south side of the building.  Doors and fixtures in the magazine were made of wood or soft metal like copper to prevent sparks that could cause accidental explosions.  Magazines were generally kept shut during military action to avoid the risk of a catastrophic explosion; instead, ammunition was distributed to small 'expense magazines' located near the fort's gun batteries prior to an attack.     

The thickness of the Stone Magazine's walls is evident in this photo.  The magazine's bombproof walls measure between 2.2 and 2.3 metres (7.22 and 7.55 feet) in thickness.  This offered good protection but meant that while the building measures 133 square metres (1,431.6 square feet), the interior magazine measures a mere 48 square metres (516.7 square feet).  The void between the stone exterior walls and the brick interior walls was filled with stone and recycled brick; the orange brick wall seen here was built in 1970 to cover previous alterations.     

The interior of the Stone Magazine, clad in brick.  To reduce the risk of fire and explosion, the army preferred not to use artificial light in magazines.  As such, the interiors of magazines were whitewashed to improve lighting conditions.  On the right are racks used to store different kinds of munitions; a second set of racks originally stood on the left but have been removed to allow visitors more space.  The whitewashed interior walls allowed soldiers to find the specific type of powder they required, even in poor lighting conditions.  If it was absolutely necessary, a trusted soldier could bring a lantern inside the magazine, with its good quality candle safely enclosed.  By the late 1800s, lighting from sources that did not require an open flame were being used in gunpowder magazines.

A small door on the north wall inside the Stone Magazine could be opened during dry weather to increase ventilation and closed during conflict to prevent explosions from penetrating inside the magazine.  The topography around Fort York in the 19th century meant that no enemy artillery rounds could be fired directly at the Stone Magazine.  The thin vertical slits in the wall are vents used to circulate fresh air into the Stone Magazine and under the floor to keep the gunpowder dry.  The vents turn corners to reduce the risk of fire entering the magazine and the vents themselves were originally equipped with doors that could be closed to seal off the interior of the magazine.  The vents are covered with copper screens to keep out animals and prevent saboteurs from throwing burning objects into the magazine.  Copper was used for these screens and other fixtures in the magazine as 'soft' copper does not create sparks when hit, unlike steel and other 'hard' metals.  A tub of slaked lime was kept in the magazine to absorb humidity in the air and further ensure the powder stayed dry. 

Inscribed on the wall inside the Stone Magazine are the initials 'WMG' and the date 1815.  These are the initials of Lieutenant William M. Gossett of the Royal Engineers, who supervised the construction of the Stone Magazine and may also have been its architect.

A display case contains items discovered by archaeologists during excavations at the Stone Magazine.  On the upper left is a charcoal-filled 'Paragon' copper terminus for a lightning rod that would have been inserted into the soil outside the magazine to ground the electrical charge from a lightning strike; this terminus dates from the early 20th century.  On the lower right are twisted fragments of bronze gunpowder barrel hoops from the 1813 Battle of York.  These hoop fragments were from some of the 200 barrels of powder detonated in the pre-1815 magazine by British forces on 27 April 1813.  The explosion was so massive that it killed or wounded 250 of the American attackers and was seen and heard as far away as the mouth of the Niagara River, 50 kilometres (31 miles) across Lake Ontario.

The original keystone from above the door to the Stone Magazine.  Etched into the stone are the initials of King George III in Latin (Georgius Rex III) and the number 54, indicating the 54th year of his reign (25 October 1813 to 24 October 1814), despite the fact that the Stone Magazine was not constructed until 1815.  This keystone was removed and brought inside to avoid further weathering and was replaced by a replica over the exterior doorway. 

Reproduction wooden powder barrels in the racks inside the Stone Magazine.  Such barrels were made of oak wood staves surrounded by ash wood hoops and several cooper bulge hoops to provide added strength.  The barrels came in various sizes: full barrel (21 inches/53 centimetres); half barrel (16 inches/40 centimetres); and quarter barrel (14 inches/36 centimetres).  They were watertight to protect against damp and usually filled only to 90% of capacity so that they could be rotated every few months to prevent the gunpowder from 'caking' or hardening.  In peacetime, the Stone Magazine could accommodate 574 barrels of powder in the racks.  The racks made it easier to manage the supply of gunpowder during peacetime, when the rate of use was low (e.g. for training).  During a conflict, the racks would be removed so that the magazine could accommodate its maximum capacity of 800 barrels.  Beginning in the 1830s, ammunition of various types began to be stored in wooden boxes, eventually replacing barrels altogether.  While black powder (a mix of sulphur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate) was the main type of gunpowder used by the army in the early 19th century, in the 1890s cleaner, more reliable, and more powerful smokeless powder (cordite) replaced black powder.  The Stone Magazine held both black powder and cordite over the years, with the Canadian Army using the magazine to store explosives until the 1940s. 

The Soldiers' South Barracks.  This building is identical to the Soldiers' North Barracks and was also constructed in 1815 to house 100 soldiers.  Unlike the Soldiers' North Barracks, this building is used by Fort York's staff and is not open to the public.

Exiting Fort York through the west gate, via the gift shop. 

Fort York Armoury, located on Fleet Street just south of Fort York, is an armoury and drill hall for several Toronto-based units of the Canadian Army's Primary Reserve and cadet organisation.  The building was constructed in 1933 and was designated as a recognised Federal Heritage building in 1991.

Fort York Armoury's main entrance, with the coat-of-arms of the Dominion of Canada set between the pillasters flanking the doorway.  Currently (as of 2024), Fort York Armoury is home to the Queen's York Rangers, the Royal Regiment of Canada, 32 Signal Regiment, and 32 Brigade Battle School.  Stone carvings of the cap badges of each regiment originally housed at the armoury are mounted above the second floor balconies; the badge of the Queen's York Rangers can be seen on the far left.  

A Light Armoured Vehicle III (LAV III) converted into a monument sits in front of Fort York Armoury.  Unveiled in June 2018, this monument is dedicated to soldiers of of 32 Canadian Brigade Group (Toronto Garrison) of the 4th Canadian Division who served in Afghanistan between 2001 and 2014.  The LAV III, built by General Dynamics Land Systems-Canada in London, Ontario, was the principal armoured vehicle used by Canadian forces during the Afghanistan mission.  The plaque on the side of the vehicle pays homage to the 'approximately 40,000 Canadian Armed Forces personnel who served and the 162 Canadians who died in the cause of bringing peace and freedom to the people of Afghanistan.'